Norse mythology is primarly known from the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson and Poetic Edda, both written down in the 13th century.
Some of the poems probably date back to the Viking Age.
But how old are the Norse gods and myths really? Are there traces of them even further back in time?
When people spoke Old Norse
Norse mythology is linked to the time when people spoke Old Norse, which was from 700 to 1350 CE, says Bernt Ø. Thorvaldsen. He is a professor at the University of South-Eastern Norway's Department of Languages and Literature Studies. He researches Norse literature and mythology.
"As a complete system, it's probably correct to say that Norse mythology existed during the Old Norse period before Christianity arrived, and for some time afterwards," says Thorvaldsen.
Little is known about when and how the myths originated, but there are some clues in archaeological material, place names, and ancient literature.
Such as Odin being mentioned long before the year 700.
The first time Odin appears
In 2020, a bracteate, a gold coin, from the early 5th century was found in Denmark. The bracteate bore the inscription 'he is Odin's man.' This is the oldest known inscription that mentions the ancient god.
Previously, the oldest inscription with Odin's name had been found on a cloak clasp from the latter half of the 6th century in southern Germany.
Could some of the myths have been told as early as this time?
Bracteates from the Migration Period, dated between 400 and 570 CE, feature animal and human motifs. Several appear to depict scenes from Norse mythology.
The motifs may show Tyr placing his hand in Fenrir's mouth, the Midgard serpent Jörmungandr biting its own tail, and Balder being killed by mistletoe, according to an article by Sigmund Oehrl at the University of Stavanger (link in Norwegian).
Bracteate from Funen in Denmark.(Photo: Wikimedia Commons, bloodofox, CC BY-SA 3.0)
"There's broad agreement in research that myths change slightly when they are told, but that some of the core structures in the myths may have existed already then," says Julie Lund, professor of archaeology at the University of Oslo.
She points out that Norse paganism evolved throughout the Late Iron Age.
"So, it was not a single, unchanging pagan tradition throughout history," she says.
Animals and humans
Gold foil figures, also known as gullgubber, have also been found in Scandinavia from the Merovingian period (570-800 CE). Many of these depict a couple, which researchers believe may show the wedding between Freyr and the giantess Gerðr, according to an article from the Museum of Cultural History (link in Norwegian).
Annonse
The idea that powerful individuals could take on animal forms played a key role in Norse beliefs, according to an article by Lotte Hedeager on norgeshistorie.no (link in Norwegian).
Odin was able to transform into animals and gained knowledge through his two ravens. Humans, too, were believed to draw power from animals such as bores, wolves, and bears.
Such beliefs may be reflected in animal ornamentation dating back to the 5th century, where animals, mythical creatures, and humans are interwoven in designs.
"Many researchers today interpret this as a shamanistic element in Norse paganism, which may have been particularly prominent during the Migration and Merovingian periods," says Lund, referring to research by Lotte Hedeager.
This belt buckle was found at Åker farm in Hamar. The central figure is an example of how animals and humans were intertwined in decorative art.(Photo: Eirik Irgens Johnsen, Museum of Cultural History / Norgeshistorie.no CC BY SA 4.0)
"This connection between humans and animals was also evident in burial customs. For example, some graves from the Migration Period graves contain deceased individuals wrapped in bearskins," she says.
It appears that parts of Norse mythology extend several hundred years back before the Viking Age.
However, much remains an enigma. What if we look even further back in time?
Traces of ancient myths?
"It appears that Norse mythology contains inherited elements that date back to an ancient Indo-European background from several thousand years ago," says Bernt Ø. Thorvaldsen.
Earlier scholars of religion noticed similarities in myths and religious beliefs among cultures that speak Indo-European languages. These similarities appear in creation myths, cosmology, theology, sacrificial rituals, concepts of death and resurrection, according to the Great Norwegian Encyclopedia.
At the same time, this is a debated field, the article notes. Similarities could also arise because people lived under quite similar conditions, leading to independent development of traditions, Thorvaldsen points out.
However, one particularly intriguing case is the figure of Ymir in Norse mythology, Thorvaldsen argues.
Ymir, Yima, and Yama – from ancient myths?
Ymir was the ancestor of all giants. Offspring were created from his sweat and feet. Odin and his brothers later killed Ymir and created the world from his dead body.
"This myth has parallels in ancient Indian and Persian culture," says Thorvaldsen.
In Iranian mythology, Yima was the first human and the origin of mankind. In Indian mythology, Yama was the first human to die.
Both Persian and Indian traditions associate the name with twins, one of each gender, according to Thorvaldsen.
Ymir drinking milk from the cow Audhumla.(Image: Nicolai Abildgaard (1743- 1809) / National Gallery of Denmark)
"In Norse mythology, Ymir has been interpreted as an androgynous figure embodying both genders. I believe there are enough connections here to suggest that this is truly ancient material," he says.
However, Thorvaldsen acknowledges that this remains speculative.
Thorvaldsen points to a 10th-century German magical incantation, called the second Merseburg Charm, which contains the names Odin, Frigg, and Balder.
"It's almost certain that much of what we recognise as Norse mythology was shared by other peoples, such as those in Germany and Britain," he says.
There is an early written source describing religious practices among the Germanic peoples in the book Germania, written by the Roman historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus around 98 CE.
Tacitus mentions the goddess Nerthus, a Mother Earth-like figure. Some scholars have speculated that she may be connected to the Norse god Njord.
"This is particularly interesting because linguistic changes over time suggests that the name Nerthus is an exact precursor to the later Norse name Njord," says Mikael Males, a professor of Norse philology at the University of Oslo.
Njord, like Nerthus, is associated with fertility.
Wagon discovered in Denmark
Tacitus wrote that the goddess Nerthus took her place in a wagon that was led around to various locations. There was celebration and peace. In the end, she was taken to a sacred place. The wagon was washed in a lake by slaves who were then drowned.
"We don't really recognise this from Norse mythology, but it aligns with archaeological sources, for example from Denmark," says Males.
There, it has been speculated that the discovery of carriages in bogs might be related to the worship of a goddess like Nerthus, according to an article by Lisbeth Skogstrand at norgeshistorie.no (link in Norwegian). One example is the Dejbjerg wagons in Denmark.
Illustration of Nerthus on a wagon.(Image: Emil Doepler)
Findings of certain bodies in bogs may also be connected to these types of rituals. Objects and people have been placed in water and bogs since the Late Stone Age.
Offerings in water
During the 200s, 300s, and 400s CE, numerous objects have been discovered in bodies of water, explains archaeology professor Julie Lund.
"There's no indication that this represents the exact same Norse religion known from the Viking Age. It is a practice that doesn't completely disappear but changes in the 500s and 600s," she says.
"These were large-scale sacrifices, possibly dedicated to war gods, though this remains uncertain," she adds.
Lund mentions the Illerup find from the 200s in Denmark. Thousands of weapons and objects were thrown into a lake. The equipment likely came from defeated enemies. Often, the items were destroyed before being discarded.
A depiction of how a sacrificial ceremony in Illerup Ådal may have looked, from an exhibition at Moesgård Museum.(Photo: Wikimedia Commons, RhinoMind, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Echoes of history in mythology?
Bernt Ø. Thorvaldsen refers to an old theory that he believes still holds some support. It suggests that fertility gods predate the more war-oriented Odin mythology, says Thorvaldsen.
Njord, Freyja, and Freyr belong to the Vanir and are associated with fertility. They belong to a different lineage of gods than the Æsir, which includes Odin, Thor, and Frigg.
Freyr with his sword and the boar Gullinbursti.(Image: Johannes Gehrts)
"In mythology, there's a war between the Æsir and the Vanir. A truce is made, and Njord, Freyr, and Freyja are incorporated among the other Norse gods," says Thorvaldsen.
Could the story of the Vanir-Æsir war reflect a historical shift in which gods people regarded as most important?
Place names offer clues
Place names often reference well-known gods, such as Torshov (Thor's shrine). But also lesser-known gods. The names Ullevål, Ullensvang, and Ullensaker, for instance, are derived from the god Ullr.
"It appears that the cult surrounding this god was much stronger in an earlier period than what is reflected in Snorri Sturlason's texts," says Males.
Place names like Skåne and Skøyen are linked to the jotun woman Skadi, the wife of Njord, according to Males. There is also a theory that the word Scandinavia is connected to her.
"She must have been highly significant. Her name appears as early as the Late Antiquity, in sources dating back to the 300s BCE, meaning it has a very long history," he says.
The gods people considered most important seem to have changed across different periods and regions.
Not a simple puzzle
There is still no clear picture of how old Norse mythology is and how it has evolved.
It is not as simple as piecing together archaeology, literature, and place names into a complete picture, says Julie Lund.
"You get different pictures depending on the source," she says.
Norse religion was practised in many different ways and continuously changed over time, Lund explains.
